Module 5

By: Dr Jennifer Tylee

Non-Verbal Communication: Paralinguistics, Space and Touch

This module is a continuation of the previous module on non-verbal communication and the information contained in module 4 is assumed knowledge for this module.

This module presents three further aspects of non-verbal communication – paralinguistics, space and touch. The material is divided into three sections that cover these aspects.

Paralanguage, space and touch are three important aspects of non-verbal communication. They all provide information to those interacting interpersonally. You need to take time to develop skills in reading and understanding the meaning of each aspect and then put the information together into an integrated whole. The reading of non-verbal information is not segregated into parts but the information arrives at our senses simultaneously. However, it is convenient for the purposes of study and skill development if they are considered separately.

Objectives

At the completion of this lecture you will be able to:

1. Define paralinguistic.
2. Outline the elements of paralanguage.
3. Identify the emotions that are associated with various acoustic dimensions.

Space

1. Outline the meaning of proximity and territoriality.
2. List influences on space communication.

Touch

1. Outline the importance of touch in nursing.
2. Identify the various types of touch.
3. Outline the nature of therapeutic touch in nursing practice.

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Paralanguage

Paralanguage, the vocal but non-verbal aspects of speech, refers to the manner in which something is said and not what is said. It is through the paralanguage that moods and attitudes are often betrayed. No matter what is said, the sound of how it is said will reveal a great deal about the speaker and what they feel. These aspects of the vocalisations can inform the listener about emotions, interpersonal attitudes and aspects of the speaker’s personality. For example, someone who speaks quickly will communicate something different from someone who speaks slowly, even though they may be using the same words.

Argyle (1975, 345) suggests that there are two kinds of non-verbal behaviour involved:

1. Aspects of the voice quality unrelated to the content of what is spoken: tone of the voice which provides information about the emotions; type of voice and accent provides information about personality and group membership.
2. Vocal features which help complete the meaning of what is spoken: pitch, stress, and timing.

Knapp (1978, 326) considers that paralanguage is concerned with:

1. Voice quality – pitch range (spread, narrowed), vocal lip control (sharp transition, smooth transition), articulation control (forceful, relaxed), rhythm control (smooth, jerky), resonance (full resonance, thin) and tempo (increased, decreased).
2. Vocal characterisers - laughing, crying, whispering, moaning, yelling, clearing the throat, sighing and so forth.
3. Vocal segregators – "uh", "um", "uh-huh", silent pauses (beyond the usual junctures) and intruding sounds.

McKay, Davis and Fanning (1983, 69-70) provide the following outline of the elements of paralanguage.

Pitch - as the vocal cords are tightened the voice pitch is raised.

Resonance – The shape of the vocal cords and the chest determine the richness or thinness of the voice. This is the resonance. A man with heavy cords and a large chest is likely to have a deep full voice.

Tempo – the speed at which the words are spoken reflects the emotions and attitudes. It can also reflect the region or country in which a person grew up. For example a country drawl.

Volume – this is frequently associated with emotions. Loud is seen as angry and aggressive and soft as caring and understanding

Certain aspects of the vocalisations express emotions. Argyle (1975, 346) considers that these are:

• Speed
• Loudness
• Pitch
• Speech disturbances
• Voice quality, such as breathing and resonance

Argyle (1975) cites Scherer (1974) who used a synthesiser, varied along a number of acoustic dimensions, and asked subjects to describe these in terms of emotions.

Exercise: Identifying emotions

The following material from DeVito (1990) tests how well you are able to identify emotions on the basis of verbal descriptions. Try to ‘hear’ the following ‘voices’ and identify the emotions being communicated. Do you hear affection, anger, boredom or joy?

Simply place the corresponding number next to the appropriate option. Once you are finished, click the reveal answers button.

Possibilities: 1= affection, 2 = joy, 3 = anger, 4 = boredom.

Voice and personality

Inferences are often made about the personality on the basis of the voice – though these inferences are often incorrect. An example of the type of judgement to may be made is the conclusion that those who speak very softly feel inferior – they feel that no one wants to listen and that they have nothing significant to say. A second example would be where someone concludes that a person who is speaking loudly has an overinflated ego and considers that everyone wants to hear them. All of these judgements are based on little information and may well be incorrect but people still tend to draw such conclusions (DeVito 1990, 183). Argyle (1975) suggests that three aspects of the voice may be related to personality – cues for emotion (such as loudness and pitch), personal voice qualities (such as, resonance and breathiness) and accent.

Another important aspect of paralinguistics is that it helps complete the meaning of the spoken word. Within the literature many examples are provided of this. DeVito (1990, 182) provides the following. Each sentence is said with the accent being placed on a different word. The placement of the accent changes the meaning of the sentence. The sentence: "Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?" The sentence has the following variations:

1. "Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?"
2. "Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?"
3. "Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?"
4. "Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?"
5. "Is this the face that launched a thousand ships?"

Each of the above communicates a different meaning.

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You will be aware of the bumper stickers on cars that say "If you can read this you’re too close". You will also be aware of signs that say "Keep Out", "Authorised Personnel Only" and so forth. These are signs that regulate space between humans. Although we don’t use signs such as these in interpersonal communication we do use other signals in order to regulate our personal space. One aspect which is important to an understanding of space is territoriality.

The term territoriality has been used for some time in animal studies to indicate the ownership and defence of an area against those who may invade (Knapp 1978, 115). This term has also been applied to humans and is seen as regulating social interaction. Some territorial behaviours around the home can be particularly strong – some one’s room, chair, CD and so forth. Knapp (1978, 115) cites Altman (1975) who maintains that there are three types of territory: primary, secondary and public. The primary is the exclusive domain such as in the home and one’s individual possessions. The secondary is not seen as being essential to daily life nor is it seen as being the exclusive use of the owner. The neighbourhood café or the use of the TV may be in this category. This can also be seen in the classroom, where students routinely occupy certain seats. If another student takes that seat the regular occupant can become defensive. There is likely to be more conflicts over these aspects as the public/private boundaries are not as clear. The public territory is available to anyone for temporary ownership, for example, parks and beaches. However, once the space in these public areas has been ‘marked out’ it is not expected that another will invade the area.

When you look around your home you will find territories that different people have marked out. If someone ‘invades’ the space there can be defensiveness or conflict. DeVito (1991, 172) cites Lyman and Scott (1967) who identify three types of territory invasion: violation, invasion and contamination.

We react to territory encroachment in a number of different ways. DeVito (1991, 172) suggests the following:

• Turf defence – where the intrusion will not be tolerated and there is an attempt to expel the intruders. Street gang fights over territory is an example of this.
• Insulation - this is a less extreme reaction where we erect some sort of barrier. These may be fences around the area or the use of sunglasses to avoid eye contact.
• Linguistic collusion – this is speaking in a language, such as professional jargon, unknown to the intruder. This method is used in the health care system for the exclusion of patients and non-professionals from the ‘decision making’ territory.
• Withdrawal – in this we can leave the territory.

Humans are like other animals in that they leave markers to indicate their territory. DeVito (1991, 173) cites Hickson and Stacks (1989) who identify three types of markers: central, boundary and earmarkers.

• Central markers – these are the items that we place in order to mark the territory for us. For example, the book on the desk, the towel at the beach, the drink at the bar. All of these let others know that the territory has been ‘staked out’.
• Boundary markers – these divide our territory from that of others. For example, the fence around our home and in the supermarket checkout line the bar placed between your groceries and those of the next person.
• Earmarkers – are the markers that identify your possession of a territory or object. Examples are the initials on objects such as shirts or briefcases.

DeVito (1991, 168) cites Hall (1959, 1966) who distinguishes four distances that define the type of relationship that is permitted. These are the intimate, personal, social and public.

There are many influences on space. These, according to DeVito (1991, 170), include the following (you need to remember that these are generalisations and there are many exceptions to these suggested influences):

• Status – People of equal status generally have a shorter distance between them than if they are of unequal status.
• Culture – Some cultures have a closer acceptable distance in their interpersonal interactions than others. The Asian and Middle Eastern cultures generally have a shorter distance than the Australian. There is also a difference between the urban dwellers and those from the country and more isolated areas. In the latter case the distance is greater for interpersonal interactions.
• Subject Matter – When the subject matter is of a personal nature we maintain a closer interpersonal space. We also tend to move away if we are being criticised or blamed.
• Sex and Age – there is a tendency for women to stand closer than men and those of the opposite sex tend to stand the farthest apart. Children tend to stand closer than do adults.
• Positive and Negative Evaluations – we tend to stand further away from people that we don’t like (our enemies), from people of higher status, from the handicapped, and from different racial groups.

It is important to remember the natural space and territory parameters when it comes to caring for people as patients. It is an unnatural situation where someone who is not on intimate terms to have close personal interaction with another. This is however what is allowed by society for nurses to care for patients. This does not mean however that it should be taken for granted and the patient’s personal space needs to be maintained whenever possible. It is also clear that the patient has the territory of their bed space while they are in the hospital or nursing home and the privacy of this area needs to be maintained whenever possible.

The interaction between the patient and the nurse in relation to space will be explored further in the next section when we consider the non-verbal communication of touch.

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Touch

Touch and its importance to the wellbeing of humans is well documented. Indeed babies and young children need touch in order to survive and grow. Touch, according to Tutton (1991, 142), is not only the outward physical contact between two people but includes the transference of feelings and energy between two or more individuals. Touch has particular significance in nursing practice and is a specific form of therapeutic intervention.

DeVito(1991, 174) cites Jones and Yarbough (1985) who identify five messages that touch can communicate. These are:

• Positive Affect – that is positive emotions as between two people of a close relationship.
• Playfulness – a playful touch lightens the emotion of an interaction.
• Control – touch may direct the behaviours, attitudes and feeling of another person. It may also communicate dominance.
• Ritual – such as on greetings and departures, with the hand shaking.
• Task Relatedness – this is the touch associated with the performance of some function.

Tutton (1991, 144) cites Sims (1986) who divides touch in nursing practice into four categories: instrumental, expressive, therapeutic and systematic.

• Instrumental – this is essentially for the performance of nursing tasks. Tutton considers that there are many other forms of touch which are associated with the enhancement of the patient’s wellbeing but that nurses are quickly socialised into limiting the use of touch to the instrumental. Other factors such as the ward layout and furniture, the patient’s condition, cultural background and the personality of the nurse and patient may also limit the use of touch in nursing to the instrumental.
• Expressive – Tutton (1991, 145) cites Locsin, (1984), Johnson (1985) and Bennett (1972) who indicate that touch affects people’s feelings of value and worth, that it communicates comfort, love and security as well as enhancing their emotional self-esteem and that it facilitates their recovery and acceptance of a diagnosis. Touching in this expressive manner has a therapeutic benefit to the patient.
• Therapeutic – Krieger (1979, 1) is a Professor of Nursing at the University of New York who researched the laying on of hands as an ancient form of healing with patients. This is the use of the hands to direct human energies to help or heal someone. It is based on the assumption that there is a universal life energy that sustains all living organisms. The practice of therapeutic touch involves communication between the practitioner and the patient at a fundamental level – that of energy. An experienced practitioner is able to gain information about the essence of the patient’s being from what is ‘written’ in their energy patterns. This is a far more advanced topic than can be developed in this introductory subject.
• Systematic – this is seen as being synonymous with massage. Massage is the purposeful manipulation of the soft tissue of the body with the intention of enhancing the receiver’s sense of wellbeing.

Understanding paralinguistics adds another dimension to understanding interpersonal communication. It helps in determining the meaning of verbal communication as well as providing clues as to the emotions and possibly the personality of the person speaking.

The space and territorial behaviour of people are further pieces of information that are communicated about the person. The removal of a person from their usual territory, as in the case of hospitalisation, can affect their sense of comfort and security. Various procedures in the hospital environment also invade a person’s sense of personal space.

Touch communicates a number of meanings. Some of these are general to all interpersonal interactions and others, such as therapeutic touch and massage, communicate meaning in nursing practice.

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1. Exercise: Developing Skills in Understanding Non-Verbal Behaviour

Aim:

• To heighten your awareness of the non-verbal aspects of communication.
• To develop your understanding of what information may be contained in the behaviour.

Process:

1. During the following week set aside one day to take note of each of the following:

• Gather examples of paralinguistics (particularly those associated with emotions) and the meaning it communicated.
• The space and territory behaviours of those with whom you interact.
2. What information did the examples contain?
3. What did you learn about yourself and others from this exercise?

2. Read Tutton, E. Chapter 7 An Exploration of Touch and its Use in Nursing in:

McMahon, R. & Pearson, A. 1991, Nursing as Therapy, Chapman and Hall, Melbourne.

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Argyle, M. 1975, Bodily Communication, Methuen, London.

DeVito, J.A. 1991, Human Communication: The Basic Course. 5th edn, Harper and Collins, New York.

Knapp, M.L.1978, Non-verbal Communication in Human Interaction, 2nd edn, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New York.

Krieger, D. 1979, The Therapeutic Touch: How to Use Your Hands to Help or to Hea,. Prentice Hall, New York.

McKay, M., Davis, M. & Fanning, P. 1972, Messages: The Communication Skill Book, New Harbringer, Oakland California.

Tutton, E. 1991, An exploration of touch and its use in nursing, in Nursing as Therapy, eds. R. McMahon & A. Pearson, Chapman and Hall, Melbourne.

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