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The teacher as
facilitator: By Peter Tylee BA (Deakin), MS(Psych) PhD
(California Coast), Teaching is a challenging and rewarding profession where teachers must perform many roles. Teaching practice is dynamic and complex and informed by theories from various disciplines, though principally from psychology (McFarland, 1971, 1-30). While Barry and King (1993, 6) cite 16 roles, four main roles of the teacher were described by Holliday (1997b) as facilitator, learner, colleague and community partner. In presenting a view on just what it means to be a teacher, this paper will briefly outline these roles, provide a more extensive discussion of the role of facilitator and show how the SPACE1 model, as developed by Holliday (1997a) and elaborated by Harrison (1998a & b), can both guide practice and relate the teaching process to its theoretical foundation. An overview is provided in figure 1. Figure 1 Teacher as facilitator: A role exploration using SPACE
(Holliday 1997a & 1997b; McInerney & McInerney 1994) It is the thrust of this paper that the core teacher role is that of facilitator of learning. However an informed discussion of what it means to be a teacher must also address at least the other main roles mentioned above. Holliday (1997b, 30) presents a view of the relationship between the roles which shows those of the teacher as learner, colleague and community partner being supportive of the role of teacher as facilitator as the focus of attention shifts from teacher to the students. This is shown in figure 2. Figure 2 The four main roles of the teacher: Their relationship
(Holliday, 1997b, 30) Figure 2 correctly shows, as Holliday (1997b, 30) asserts, “that in order to properly support student learning, the teacher’s learning needs must be attended to first”. However, this linear view somewhat distorts and detracts from the role of learner. An improved view of the relationship between the four roles is offered in Figure 3. Figure 3 The four major roles of the teacher: Their inter-relationship Figure 3 shows that the teacher as learner is always learning. The teacher learns more to support the other main roles through the performance of those roles. At one level this suggests improvement through practice; that through engaging with colleagues, community partners and students, the teacher continues to learn. This learning may be direct and immediate or delayed and result from reflective practice. Stenhouse (1975, 156) suggested that this learning from the practice of teaching could be more disciplined and reflect “a disposition to examine one’s own practice critically and systematically”. Such an approach might include action research, for example. The teacher as learner then, is self-directed and critically self-reflective on practice. The importance of learning as preparation for the teaching profession was also acknowledged by Stenhouse (1975, 6) who stated: “A teacher is a man (sic) of learning skilled in teaching. He (sic) is qualified by virtue of his (sic) education and his (sic) training.” Qualified though the teacher must be prior to teaching, since learner is a legitimate role of the teacher, might it not justly be reasoned that one is not truly qualified to teach until a desire for and commitment to ongoing learning is established? One benefit gained by a teacher who is also an active learner, committed to ongoing self-education, is authenticity in modelling learner behaviour for students. Evidence of the inter-relationship between the roles of teacher as learner, colleague and facilitator is offered by Wollman-Bonilla (1991) who discusses an experience as a visiting staff developer for language arts at a metropolitan school. As a teacher, Wollman-Bonilla provides discussion of a collaborative approach between teachers (colleague) which involved teacher learning (learner) and resulted in improved teaching practices (facilitator). The role of colleague then is also one which feeds back learning opportunities to the teacher. It is one characterised by give-and-take, where the teacher shares professionally in a collaborative manner to achieve shared goals. Indeed, where groups of teachers collaborate effectively, an excellent foundation exists for the creation of learning communities. The Training and Development Directorate of the NSW Department of School Education (1995 in Holliday, 1997b, 28) suggests that such learning communities are characterised by:
The teacher as colleague requires knowledge of and skills in interpersonal communication, group membership and the mentoring process. While the role of colleague may be regarded by some as one that happens by default, as though automatically acquired simply through membership of the profession, it is clear that it is actually vitally important, complex, informed by theories and skill based (See Egan 1977, DeVito 1989 and 1994, and Tylee & Tylee 1998 on interpersonal skills; Lewin 1947, Berne 1963, Guthrie & Miller 1978, Robbins 1993, and Tylee 1998b on groups; and Carruthers 1993 on mentoring, for example, for classic and contemporary details of the relevant theories and skills). Such a role takes time to acquire and must be learned. The community partner role draws on a similar skill base. It too requires sound interpersonal and group skills and may be enhanced by some knowledge of the concept of community (Tylee, 1998a). For example, the teachers’ partnership roles may vary depending on whether they are acting within a learning community, a community of problem ecology, a special interest community, and so forth. The school community is quite diverse in make-up. While Holliday (1997b) correctly emphasises the inclusion of parents and guardians, it also includes regular visitors to the school, such as clergy and resources representatives for example, grounds staff, cleaners, school nurses and counsellors, and others. As a community partner, the teacher has an important role in cooperating with other members of the school community, and at times in providing leadership, to ensure best possible conditions for promoting learning. The NSW Department of School Education (1996 in Holliday, 1997b, 29) suggests that “Each teacher plays a key role in developing the community’s trust and confidence in the school [and] … must always act with sensitivity and consideration to the needs of students and their families”. These role requirements are challenging and necessitate knowledge of and sensitivity to the social and cultural characteristics of the community members. Clearly teaching practice is dynamic and complex, as this brief discussion has already shown. Indeed, McInerney and McInerney (1994, 14) in discussing the many roles of the teacher go so far as to assert that: “Teaching is a holistic activity not easily separated into clearly distinguished components”. As we can see in figure 2 above, the roles of learner, colleague and community partner are essentially supportive of the principal role of facilitator of learning. This role also has a two-way relationship with the others. The teacher learns from the facilitator role and the teacher may facilitate learning for both colleagues and community partners. This further improved view of the relationships between the roles may be seen in figure 4. Figure 4 The dynamic inter-relationship of the teacher’s four main roles
The role of facilitator deserves more detailed attention and for this we can refer to Holliday’s (1997a) SPACE model. This model describes a set of conditions to be engineered, or facilitated, by the teacher in order to foster, stimulate or otherwise enable student learning. The teacher does so within the ongoing teaching process of: · specifying learning outcomes, · preparing for these outcomes to be achieved, · advancing learning towards the outcomes, · critiquing how well the outcomes are achieved, and · evaluating each step of this process. While this may seem more complex than the three step teaching process of plan, teach and evaluate described by Barry and King (1994, 40-41), it is really only an expansion of the first and last of these steps to one further step each. (It also has the supposed virtue of being reducible to the SPACE acronym, as can be seen easily on figure 1.) The central part of the teaching
process, advancing learning, is where the teacher serves to activate the
conditions of learning. Those described by Holliday (1997a), with parenthetic
descriptors from Harrison (1998b), are clearly listed on figure 1. Of these, Holliday
(1997c, 2) states: The S.P.A.C.E. conditions operate simultaneously or synergetically. This means that it is good to activate at least one of the conditions … two or three or four conditions are better again, and the full complement of five is best of all. So, although each condition is distinctive, the five conditions … overlap seamlessly. If this model from educational theory is sound, and the work by Harrison (1998a & b) is supportive of such a conclusion, then major concepts from widely used psychological theories of learning should readily relate to its elements. For our purposes the discussion can be limited to the three major areas of psychological learning theories: behaviourism, cognitivism and humanism. But what are these exactly; what makes them so important to the teacher as facilitator of learning? A learning theory is a “systematic, integrated outlook in regard to the nature of the process whereby people relate to their environments in such a way as to enhance their ability to use both themselves and their environments more effectively” (Bigge, 1982, 3). Behavioural theory (also known as stimulus-response or conditioning theory) approaches the study of learning by focussing on behaviours that can be observed, measured and changed. A significant development in behaviourism for teachers is social cognitive or social learning theory. There are also several cognitive theories. Perhaps the most influential developmental and cognitive theorist has been Piaget, whose theory of cognitive development has contributed greatly to understanding of the orderly, sequential and interactive nature of childhood cognitive development (Spradley & Allender, 1996, 308). Cognitive learning theories include the gestalt-field family of theories which gives rise to the label of constructivism (McInerney & McInerney, 1994, 181). An important approach for teachers is the information-processing model. Humanism is broader in scope than behaviourism and cognitivism. It has been most influenced by Maslow’s (1970) hierarchy of human needs and Roger’s (1989) client or student centredness and the importance of positive self-regard. Let us now consider these theories in terms of the SPACE conditions of learning as summarised in figure 1. For the self-affirmation or self-belief condition students must have a positive self-image as learners. Here the teacher seeks to facilitate achievement of this emotional or affective condition by positive statements such as “you can do this” or “you will be good at this” for example. We see in figure 1 that behaviourism supports this with concepts such as reinforcement and giving positive feedback. Cognitivism also supports this condition with the concept that repeated success in learning will build self-confidence. This reflects the thought that success breeds success in learning, where the teacher can act as facilitator with encouragement and positive feedback. Humanism also supports this condition. Here the concept is less direct but arguably more profound. Positive self-regard subsumes a positive self-image as a learner. Further, since the overarching motivation is to self-actualise, the focus on awareness of self is thoroughly supportive of there being a role for this condition of learning. To achieve the personal meaning condition students must think about the learning outcome in a way of some significance to themselves. Here the teacher facilitates the intellectual discovery of this meaning by such strategies, for example, as exposing students to a range of related ideas and opinions and encouraging them to form their own views. Again all three theoretical approaches have concepts compatible with this condition of learning. For behaviourists it is the perceived relevance of the rewards and punishments that students personally attribute. For cognitivists it is recognition that students apply a meaning filter by attending to and selecting what are perceived as personally relevant incoming stimuli. For humanists we have recourse to Maslow’s needs. Ultimately students make individual interpretation of the most personally relevant ways to meet their needs. For the action condition to be activated students must physically do something in order to learn. Here the teacher facilitates the performance of some appropriate physical action, whether by prompting or allowing the action based on students’ initiative. The behaviourists’ focus is particularly strongly supportive. They emphasise copying behaviours and the role of practice in learning. Cognitivists are also supportive, but what constitutes behaviour is less likely to be interpreted in purely physical terms, though rehearsal of actions is clearly included. However, they would include a number of cognitive processes as actions supportive of learning. Humanists are again supportive in general terms. The humanists’ support self-responsibility for all actions and accept that actions are necessary to meet needs. Hence, they consider that students exercise personal initiative in doing all acts, including those focussed on learning. The collaboration condition is met by engaging in learning along with relevant others. The teacher facilitates this by enabling social interaction for the learning opportunities. This might include arranging for students to work in pairs or groups for example. All three psychological approaches are quite strong here. Behaviourists view learning as taking place through modelling and through responses to stimuli, such as those from other people. Cognitivists recognise the important roles of guidance and encouragement from others in supporting learning. Humanists’ emphasis on the self is not at the expense of social contact. Indeed, they consider the very view of one’s self is developed through interaction with others. Finally, the empowerment condition involves students having choice in their learning. This choice is motivational since students are to some extent following their own lead. The teacher facilitates this ability to be empowered by granting opportunities to chose aspects of learning and encouraging students to seek autonomy and to exercise self-direction. Once again, all approaches have concepts that support this condition. Behaviourists consider that all people are inherently motivated to learn and that ultimately students respond to their own interpretation of extrinsic motivators. Cognitivists essentially agree that students are motivated by making their own choices of learning strategies. Like the behaviourists, humanists also consider that students are inherently motivated to learn. They further suggest that ultimately individuals make choices aimed at moving toward self-actualisation. Clearly, it is possible to closely tie the SPACE model, which reflects teaching practice, to the various approaches to learning theory which constitute a large part of the foundation for that practice. The SPACE model guides teaching and supports learning and is informed by theory. As such it does effectively “provide a bridge between theory and practice for the classroom” (Holliday, 1997c, 2). As we have seen, building and navigating that bridge in the context of a school provides a challenge to professional teachers whose roles are complex and dynamic. This paper has provided a glimpse into just what it means to be a professional teacher. 1 Holliday (1997a) identifies the model with the acronym S.P.A.C.E. This author considers the use of full stops to be unnecessary and distracting and uses SPACE instead. Back References Barry, K. & King, L. (1993). Beginning teaching. (2nd ed.). Australia: Social Science Press. Berne, E. (1963). The structure and dynamics of organizations and groups. Philadelphia: Lippincott. Bigge, M. (1982). Learning theories for teachers. (4th ed.). New York: Harper. Carruthers, J. (1993). The return of the mentor: Strategies for workplace learning. London: Falmer Press. Egan, J. (1977). You and me: The skills of communicating and relating to others. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. DeVito, J. (1994). Human communication: The basic course. (6th ed.). New York: Harper Collins. DeVito, J. (1989). The interpersonal communication book. (5th ed.). New York: Harper & Row. Guthrie, E. & Miller, S. (1978). Making change: A guide to effectiveness in groups. Minneapolis: Interpersonal Communication Programs. Harrison, H. (1998a). Conditions for optimal learning: Comparing the reflections of teacher-trainers and teacher-trainees. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Conference of the Australian Tertiary Educators Association, Melbourne, Australia. Harrison, H. (1998b). The S.P.A.C.E. model: Optimal conditions for teaching, learning, and assessment. Paper presented at the Annual International Conference of Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia, Auckland, New Zealand. Holliday, R. (1997a). A model of teacher learning applied to workplaces other than schools. In R. King (Ed.), Exploring professional development in education (pp. 80-102). Wentworth Falls, NSW: Social Sciences Press. Holliday, R. (1997b). Module 1: Introduction to Teaching, in EPT409 Practice of Teaching (Primary) 1: Learning and Teaching. Bathurst: Charles Sturt University. Holliday, R. (1997c). Module 2: Introduction to Teaching, in EPT409 Practice of Teaching (Primary) 1: Learning and Teaching. Bathurst: Charles Sturt University. Lewin, K. (1947). Frontiers in group dynamics: Concept, method and reality in social science, Human Relations, 1(1): 5-41. Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality. (2nd ed.). New York: Harper & Row. McFarland, H. (1971). Psychological theory and educational practice: Human development, learning and assessment. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. McInerney, D. & McInerney, V. (1994). Educational psychology: Constructing learning. Sydney: Prentice Hall. Robbins, S. (1993). Organizational behaviour. (6th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Rogers, C. (1989). Freedom to learn for the eighties. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Stenhouse, L. (1975). An introduction to curriculum research and development. London: Heinemann. Tylee, P. (1998a). Module 2 Foundation concepts: Community and health, in Primary health care: The online course. http://www.appknow.com/phc/phc_m2.html Tylee, P. (1998b). Module 7 Groups and Change: theory and practice, in Primary health care: The online course. http://www.appknow.com/phc/phc_m7.html Tylee, J. & Tylee, P. (1998). Therapeutic communication: The online course. http://www.education4skills.com/thecom/ Wollman-Bonilla, J. (1991). Shouting from the tops of buildings: Teachers as learners and change within schools. Language Arts, 68, February, pp.114-120. Presentation/Workshop Plan Assumptions:
1. Introduction (3 – 5 minutes)
2. The teacher’s four main roles (3 minutes)
3. Activity (15 minutes total) (Hand out activity sheet) Engage interest by explaining that all adults have stories to tell about their experiences as students and their attempts to learn. These reveal a great deal about learning and what it means for a teacher to be a facilitator. The understandings shared by participants here will form part of the next section of the session.
Individuals (3 – 5 minutes) (Activity sheet) Rationale:
b) Small groups (4 or 5 members by student choice) (5 minutes) (Activity sheet) Rationale:
c) Whole class (5 – 7 minutes) (Board work) Students are reassembled into one class group and asked to report on their discussions. This feedback is to be laid out on the board in columns for the SPACE model, but not yet labelled. Rationale:
4. Outline of SPACE model (5 minutes) (OHP 4 & Board work) The features of the SPACE model are briefly explained (OHP 4) and the letters of SPACE are written above the relevant columns on the board. Gaps in any sections are explored using questioning techniques to elicit input from participants’ experiences. Rationale:
5. Outline teacher as facilitator process (3 – 5 minutes) Continue to develop participants’ understanding by using what they have said while explaining the process. (OHP 5) Rationale:
6. Summary and conclusion (5 – 7 minutes) Reaffirm that the participants have gained valuable insight into the roles of professional teachers, especially the major role of facilitator. Discuss a summary of the material making many references to the input provided by participants. Invite and enthusiastically respond to any questions. (OHP 6) Rationale:
Resources Overhead projector Blackboard or Whiteboard or similar with chalk or markers. Printed activity sheets (20) Overheads: 1. Objectives 2. Roles 3. Role relationships 4. SPACE model 5. Facilitator process 6. Summary OHP 1 Teacher as
facilitator: One of the four
major roles of the teacher At the completion of this session participants will be
able to: §
List 4 main roles of the
teacher §
Describe factors that
assist people to learn §
Outline the SPACE model §
Outline the teacher as
facilitator process OHP 2 Four main roles
of professional teachers §
Teacher as learner §
Teacher as colleague §
Teacher as community
partner §
Teacher as facilitator OHP 3
The
inter-relationships between the 4 main roles
OHP 4 The SPACE model S.
for
Self-affirmation (emotional) P.
for Personal
meaning (intellectual) A.
for Action (physical) C.
for
Collaboration (social) E.
for
Empowerment (motivational) _______________________________ Sources: Holliday, R. (1997). A model of
teacher learning applied to workplaces other than schools. In R. King (Ed.), Exploring professional development in
education (pp. 80-102). Wentworth Falls, NSW: Social Sciences Press. Harrison, H. (1998). The S.P.A.C.E. model: Optimal conditions for teaching, learning, and assessment. Paper presented at the Annual International Conference of Higher Education Research and Development Society of Australasia, Auckland, New Zealand. OHP 5 Teacher as
facilitator process §
Specify
learning outcomes §
Prepare
for learning outcomes §
Advance
learning towards outcomes by activating §
Critique
how well outcomes are achieved §
Evaluate
each step of the process Start
again… OHP 6 SUMMARY
ACTIVITY SHEET 1. Briefly describe an occasion when you really learnt something. ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2. When asked, quickly divide into groups of four or five. Discuss with the group what helped you to learn and make notes below. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Publications | Search | Contact
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